50s Female Fashion 60s Female Fashion

Subculture in England

Two mid-1960s mods on a customised Lambretta scooter

Modernistic is a subculture that began in London and spread throughout U.k. and elsewhere, somewhen influencing fashions and trends in other countries,^[1] and continues today on a smaller scale. Focused on music and manner, the subculture has its roots in a small group of stylish London-based young men in the late 1950s who were termed modernists because they listened to modern jazz.^[two] Elements of the mod subculture include fashion (often tailor-made suits); music (including soul, rhythm and blues, ska, jazz, and later splintering off into freakbeat); and motor scooters (ordinarily Lambretta or Vespa). In the mid-1960s, the subculture listened to ability pop rock groups with mod following, such every bit The Who and The Small Faces, later on the peak Mod era. The original mod scene was associated with amphetamine-fuelled all-night dancing at clubs.^[3]

During the early to mid-1960s, as modernistic grew and spread throughout the UK, certain elements of the mod scene became engaged in well-publicised clashes with members of a rival subculture: rockers.^[iv] The mods and rockers conflict led sociologist Stanley Cohen to use the term "moral panic" in his written report well-nigh the 2 youth subcultures,^[five] which examined media coverage of the mod and rocker riots in the 1960s.^[6]

By 1965, conflicts betwixt mods and rockers began to subside and mods increasingly gravitated towards popular art and psychedelia. London became synonymous with fashion, music, and pop culture in these years, a period often referred to as "Swinging London". During this time, mod fashions spread to other countries and became popular in the United states of america and elsewhere—with mod at present viewed less as an isolated subculture, but emblematic of the larger youth culture of the era.

Every bit mod became more cosmopolitan during the "Swinging London" catamenia, some working class "street mods" splintered off, forming other groups such as what eventually became known as skinheads. There was a modernistic revival in the United Kingdom in the late 1970s, which attempted to replicate the "scooter" flow wait and styles of the early to mid-1960s. It was followed by a similar mod revival in Northward America in the early on 1980s, specially in southern California.^[7] ^[eight]

Etymology and usage [edit]

The term mod derives from modernist, a term used in the 1950s to describe modern jazz musicians and fans.^[9] This usage contrasted with the term trad, which described traditional jazz players and fans. The 1959 novel Absolute Beginners describes modernists as immature mod jazz fans who dress in precipitous modern Italian clothes. The novel may be one of the earliest examples of the term being written to describe young British style-conscious modern jazz fans. This usage of the word modernist should non be confused with modernism in the context of literature, art, pattern and architecture. From the mid-to-tardily 1960s onwards, the mass media oft used the term modernistic in a wider sense to depict anything that was believed to be popular, fashionable or modern.

Paul Jobling and David Crowley argued that the definition of mod can be difficult to pin down, because throughout the subculture's original era, it was "prone to continuous reinvention."^[ten] They claimed that since the mod scene was so pluralist, the word mod was an umbrella term that covered several distinct sub-scenes. Terry Rawlings argued that mods are hard to ascertain considering the subculture started out as a "mysterious semi-secret world", which the Who's manager Peter Meaden summarised as "clean living under hard circumstances."^[eleven]

History 1958–1969 [edit]

George Melly wrote that mods were initially a minor group of clothes-focused English working class young men insisting on clothes and shoes tailored to their style, who emerged during the modern jazz boom of the late 1950s.^[12] Early mods watched French and Italian art films and read Italian magazines to expect for style ideas.^[eleven] They usually held semi-skilled manual jobs or low form white-neckband positions such as a clerk, messenger or office boy. Co-ordinate to Dick Hebdige, mods created a parody of the consumer order that they lived in.^[xiii]

Early 1960s [edit]

Quadrophenia exhibit at the Cotswold Motor Museum in Bourton-on-the-Water in 2007

According to Hebdige, by effectually 1963, the mod subculture had gradually accumulated the identifying symbols that afterwards came to be associated with the scene, such as scooters, amphetamine pills and R&B music.^[14] While clothes were still important at that time, they could be ready-made. Dick Hebdige wrote the term mod covered a number of styles including the emergence of Swinging London, though to him it defined Melly's working form clothes-conscious teenagers living in London and s England in the early to mid-1960s.^[14]

Mary Anne Long argued that "beginning paw accounts and contemporary theorists point to the Jewish upper-working or middle-class of London'southward Eastward Finish and suburbs."^[15] Simon Frith asserted that the mod subculture had its roots in the 1950s crackpot coffee bar culture, which catered to art schoolhouse students in the radical Bohemian scene in London.^[16] Steve Sparks, whose claim is to be one of the original mods, agrees that earlier mod became commercialised, it was essentially an extension of the beatnik culture: "It comes from 'modernist', information technology was to practise with modern jazz and to do with Sartre" and existentialism.^[15] Sparks argued that "Mod has been much misunderstood ... every bit this working-class, scooter-riding precursor of skinheads."

Java bars were attractive to British youth because, in dissimilarity to typical pubs, which closed at near 11pm, they were open until the early hours of the morning. Java bars had jukeboxes, which in some cases reserved space in the machines for the customers' own records. In the tardily 1950s, coffee bars were associated with jazz and blues, only in the early 1960s, they began playing more R&B music. Frith noted that although java bars were originally aimed at middle-class art school students, they began to facilitate an intermixing of youth from different backgrounds and classes.^[17] At these venues, which Frith called the "first sign of the youth movement", young people met collectors of R&B and blues records, who introduced them to new types of African-American music.^{[ citation needed ]}

As the mod subculture grew in London during the early-to-mid-1960s, tensions could arise betwixt the mods, often riding highly decorated motor scooters, and their master rivals, the rockers, a British subculture who favoured rockabilly, early rock'n'curlicue, motorcycles and leather jackets, and considered the mods effeminate, because of their involvement in fashion.^[18] Violent clashes could ensue between the two groups.^[18] This menstruum was later immortalised by songwriter Pete Townshend, in the Who's 1973 concept album, Quadrophenia.^[nineteen]

However, after 1964, clashes between the two groups largely subsided, as mod expanded and came to exist accepted by the larger youth generation throughout the UK as a symbol of all that was new.^[20] ^[21] During this time London became a mecca for rock music, with popular bands such as The Who and The Small Faces appealing to a largely modernistic audition,^[22] also as the preponderance of hip fashions, in a period frequently referred to as Swinging London.

Mid-late 1960s [edit]

Swinging London [edit]

Every bit numerous British stone bands of the mid-1960s began to adopt a mod wait and following,^[22] the scope of the subculture grew beyond its original confines and the focus began to change. Past 1966, proletarian aspects of the scene in London had waned as way and pop-culture elements continued to grow, not only in England, but elsewhere.^[1]

This menstruation, portrayed by Alberto Sordi'due south picture in Thank you very much, and in Michelangelo Antonioni's 1966 film Blowup, ^[23] was typified by pop fine art, Carnaby Street boutiques, live music, and discothèques. Many associate this era with fashion model Twiggy, miniskirts, and assuming geometrical patterns on brightly coloured clothes. During these years, information technology exerted a considerable influence on the worldwide spread of modernistic.^[1]

Usa and elsewhere [edit]

As modern was going through transformation in England, it became all the rage in the United States and around the world, every bit many young people adopted its look.^[one] However, the worldwide experience differed from that of the early scene in London in that it was based mainly on the pop culture aspect, influenced by British rock musicians. Past at present, mod was idea of more as a general youth-civilization manner rather than as a separate subgroup amidst different contentious factions.^[20] ^[21] ^[24]

American musicians, in the wake of the British Invasion, adopted the look of mod apparel, longer hairstyles, and Beatle boots.^[25] The exploitation documentary Mondo Modernistic provides a glimpse at modern's influence on the Sunset Strip and Due west Hollywood scene of belatedly 1966.^[26] Mod increasingly became associated with psychedelic rock and the early hippie movement, and past 1967 more exotic looks, such every bit Nehru jackets and love chaplet came into vogue.^[27] ^[28] ^[29] Its trappings were reflected on pop American Tv shows such equally Laugh-In and The Mod Squad.^[30] ^[31] ^[32] ^[33]

Decline [edit]

Dick Hebdige argued that the subculture lost its vitality when it became commercialised and stylised to the point that modernistic clothing styles were existence created "from above" by clothing companies and by Goggle box shows similar Ready Steady Go!, rather than existence developed by young people customising their wearing apparel and combining different fashions.^[34]

Every bit psychedelic stone and the hippie subculture grew more pop in the United Kingdom, much of mod, for a time, seemed intertwined with those movements. Notwithstanding, after 1968 it dissipated, equally tastes began to favor a less mode-witting, denim and tie-dyed look, along with a decreased interest in nightlife. Bands such every bit The Who and Small Faces began to change and, by the end of the decade, moved abroad from mod. Additionally, the original mods of the early 1960s were coming to the age of marriage and child-rearing, which meant many of them no longer had the fourth dimension or coin for their youthful pastimes of society-going, tape-shopping, and ownership clothes.

Later on developments 1969–present [edit]

Offshoots [edit]

Some street-orientated mods, usually of bottom means, sometimes referred to as difficult mods, remained active well into the belatedly 1960s, but tended to go increasingly detached from the Swinging London scene and the burgeoning hippie movement.^[35] ^[36] Past 1967, they considered virtually of the people in the Swinging London scene to be "soft mods" or "peacock mods", as styles, there, became increasingly extravagant, often featuring highly ruffled, brocaded, or laced fabrics in Day-Glo colours.^[29] ^[35] ^[36]

Mod graffiti in Italian republic from 2007

Many of the difficult mods lived in the same economically depressed areas of South London as Due west Indian immigrants, so these mods favoured a different kind of attire, that emulated the rude boy await of Trilby hats and as well-short trousers.^[37] These "aspiring 'white negros'" listened to Jamaican ska and mingled with black rude boys at West Indian nightclubs like Ram Jam, A-Train and Sloopy'due south.^[38] ^[39] ^[40] Hebdige claimed that the hard mods were drawn to black civilization and ska music in function because the educated, middle-class hippie movement's drug-orientated and intellectual music did non have any relevance for them.^[41] He argued that the difficult mods were attracted to ska because it was a secret, underground, not-commercialised music that was disseminated through breezy channels such as house parties and clubs.^[42]

By the stop of the 1960s, the hard mods had get known as skinheads,^[43] who, in their early days, would be known for the same love of soul, rocksteady and early on reggae.^[44] ^[45] ^[46] Because of their fascination with black culture, the early skinheads were, except in isolated situations, largely devoid of the overt racism and fascism that would later go associated with whole wings of the movement in the mid to late 1970s.^[47] The early skinheads retained basic elements of mod fashion—such every bit Fred Perry and Ben Sherman shirts, Sta-Prest trousers and Levi'south jeans—simply mixed them with working course-orientated accessories such as braces and Dr. Martens work boots. Hebdige claimed that every bit early on as the Margate and Brighton brawls between mods and rockers, some mods were seen wearing boots and braces and sporting close cropped haircuts (for practical reasons, as long hair was a liability in industrial jobs and street fights).

Mods and ex-mods were also function of the early northern soul scene, a subculture based on obscure 1960s and 1970s American soul records. Some mods evolved into, or merged with, subcultures such equally individualists, stylists, and scooterboys.^[11]

Revivals and later on influences [edit]

A modern revival started in the late 1970s in the Great britain, with thousands of modernistic revivalists attending scooter rallies in locations such as Scarborough and the Isle of Wight. This revival was partly inspired by the 1979 film Quadrophenia, which explores the original 1960s movement, and by mod-influenced bands such as The Jam, Secret Thing, The Lambrettas, Majestic Hearts, The Specials and The Chords, who drew on the free energy of new moving ridge music.

The British modern revival was followed by a revival in North America in the early on 1980s, particularly in Southern California, led by bands such as The Untouchables.^[seven] ^[eight] The mod scene in Los Angeles and Orange County was partly influenced past the 2 Tone ska revival in England, and was unique in its racial diversity, with black, white, Hispanic and Asian participants. The 1990s Britpop scene featured noticeable mod influences on bands such as Oasis, Blur, Ocean Color Scene and The Bluetones. Pop 21st century musicians Miles Kane^[48] and Jake Bugg^[49] are also followers of the mod subculture.

Quadrophenia alley, June 2020.

Characteristics [edit]

Dick Hebdige argued that when trying to sympathise 1960s mod civilisation, i has to try and "penetrate and decipher the mythology of the mods".^[l] Terry Rawlings argued that the mod scene adult when British teenagers began to reject the "dull, timid, old-fashioned, and uninspired" British civilisation around them, with its repressed and class-obsessed mentality and its "naffness".^[11] Mods rejected the "faulty pap" of 1950s pop music and sappy honey songs. They aimed at beingness "absurd, neat, sharp, hip, and smart" by embracing "all things sexy and streamlined", especially when they were new, exciting, controversial or modern.^[11] Hebdige claimed that the modernistic subculture came about every bit part of the participants' desire to understand the "mysterious complexity of the metropolis" and to become close to black civilization of the Jamaican rude male child, because mods felt that blackness culture "ruled the night hours" and that information technology had more than streetwise "savoir faire".^[50] Shari Benstock and Suzanne Ferriss argued that at the "core of the British Modern rebellion was a blatant fetishising of the American consumer culture" that had "eroded the moral fiber of England."^[51] In doing so, the mods "mocked the form system that had gotten their fathers nowhere" and created a "rebellion based on consuming pleasures".

The influence of British newspapers on creating the public perception of mods as having a leisure-filled club-going lifestyle tin can exist seen in a 1964 article in the Dominicus Times. The newspaper interviewed a 17-yr-one-time mod who went out clubbing seven nights a week and spent Saturday afternoons shopping for clothes and records. Withal, few British teens and young adults would accept had the time and money to spend this much time going to nightclubs. Paul Jobling and David Crowley argued that most young mods worked 9 to 5 at semi-skilled jobs, which meant that they had much less leisure time and but a modest income to spend during their time off.^[52]

Style [edit]

Paul Jobling and David Crowley called the modern subculture a "fashion-obsessed and hedonistic cult of the hyper-cool" young adults who lived in metropolitan London or the new towns of the south. Due to the increasing affluence of post-war Britain, the youths of the early 1960s were one of the offset generations that did not have to contribute their coin from after-school jobs to the family finances. Every bit mod teens and young adults began using their disposable income to buy stylish clothes, the outset youth-targeted boutique vesture stores opened in London in the Carnaby Street and King'southward Route districts.^[53] The streets' names became symbols of, one magazine later stated, "an endless frieze of mini-skirted, booted, off-white-haired angular angels".^[54] Newspaper accounts from the mid-1960s focussed on the mod obsession with clothes, frequently detailing the prices of the expensive suits worn by young mods, and seeking out extreme cases such every bit a immature mod who claimed that he would "go without nutrient to buy clothes".^[52]

Two youth subcultures helped pave the style for mod fashion by breaking new ground: the beatniks, with their Bohemian epitome of berets and black turtlenecks, and the Teddy Boys, from whom mod fashion inherited its "narcissistic and fastidious [fashion] tendencies" and the immaculate corking look.^[55] The Teddy Boys paved the mode for making male involvement in fashion socially adequate, considering prior to the Teddy Boys, male interest in fashion in Uk was more often than not associated with the underground homosexual subculture's flamboyant dressing style.

Jobling and Crowley argued that for working form mods, the subculture'southward focus on mode and music was a release from the "humdrum of daily existence" at their jobs.^[52] Jobling and Crowley noted that while the subculture had strong elements of consumerism and shopping, mods were not passive consumers; instead they were very self-witting and critical, customising "existing styles, symbols and artefacts" such as the Marriage flag and the Royal Air Forcefulness roundel, and putting them on their jackets in a pop art-fashion, and putting their personal signatures on their style.^[10] Mods adopted new Italian and French styles in part as a reaction to the rural and small-town rockers, with their 1950s-style leather motorcycle apparel and American greaser look.^{[ citation needed ]}

Male mods adopted a smooth, sophisticated expect that included tailor-made suits with narrow lapels (sometimes made of mohair), sparse ties, button-downwards collar shirts, wool or cashmere jumpers (crewneck or V-cervix), Chelsea or Beatle boots, loafers, Clarks desert boots, bowling shoes, and hairstyles that imitated the wait of French Nouvelle Vague film actors.^[56] A few male mods went confronting gender norms by using middle shadow, center-pencil or even lipstick.^[56] Mods chose scooters over motorbikes partly because they were a symbol of Italian fashion and because their body panels concealed moving parts and made them less probable to stain clothes with oil or road dust. Many mods wore ex-armed forces parkas while driving scooters in society to go on their wearing apparel clean.

Many female mods dressed androgynously, with short haircuts, men's trousers or shirts, apartment shoes, and little makeup — often just pale foundation, brown eye shadow, white or pale lipstick and false eyelashes.^[57] Miniskirts became progressively shorter betwixt the early and mid-1960s. As female person mod fashion became more mainstream, slender models like Jean Shrimpton and Twiggy began to exemplify the mod look. Maverick manner designers emerged, such as Mary Quant, who was known for her mini-skirt designs, and John Stephen, who sold a line named "His Clothes" and whose clients included bands such as Pocket-sized Faces.^[56] The television programme Ready Steady Get! helped spread awareness of modernistic fashions to a larger audience. Modern-civilization continues to influence fashion, with the ongoing tendency for modernistic-inspired styles such as 3-push suits, Chelsea boots and mini dresses. The Mod Revival of the 1980s and 1990s led to a new era of modern-inspired fashion, driven past bands such as Madness, The Specials and Oasis. The popularity of the This Is England motion picture and Television receiver serial also kept mod way in the public eye. Today'south mod icons include Miles Kane (frontman of the Last Shadow Puppets), cyclist Bradley Wiggins and Paul Weller, 'The ModFather'.

Music [edit]

The early on mods listened to the "sophisticated smoother modern jazz" of musicians such equally Miles Davis, Charlie Parker, Dave Brubeck and the Modernistic Jazz Quartet, besides equally the American rhythm and dejection (R&B) of artists such as Bo Diddley and Muddy Waters. The music scene of the Mods was a mix of modernistic jazz, R&B, psychedelic stone and soul.^[58] Terry Rawlings wrote that mods became "dedicated to R&B and their own dances."^[11] Black American servicemen, stationed in Britain during the early part of the Cold War, brought over R&B and soul records that were unavailable in Britain, and they oft sold these to immature people in London.^[59] Starting effectually 1960, mods embraced the off-beat out, Jamaican ska music of artists such as the Skatalites, Owen Gray, Derrick Morgan and Prince Buster on record labels such as Melodisc, Starlite and Bluebeat.^[sixty]

The original mods gathered at all-night clubs such as The Flamingo and The Marquee in London to hear the latest records and show off their trip the light fantastic moves. As the mod subculture spread across the United Kingdom, other clubs became popular, including Twisted Bike Gild in Manchester.^[61]

The British R&B/rock bands The Rolling Stones, The Yardbirds and The Kinks all had modernistic followings, and other bands emerged that were specifically mod-orientated.^[22] These included The Who, Small Faces, The Creation, The Action, The Smoke and John's Children.^[22] The Who's early promotional fabric tagged them equally playing "maximum rhythm and dejection", and a name change in 1964 from The Who to The Loftier Numbers was an attempt to cater even more to the modern market. Later the commercial failure of the single "Zoot Adapt/I'k the Face up", the ring changed its name back to The Who.^[22] Although The Beatles dressed like mods for a while (after dressing like rockers earlier), their trounce music was not as popular equally British R&B amongst mods.^[62]

The late 1970s saw an explosive modernistic revival in England due to the popularity of new wave mod band The Jam and the success of the movie Quadrophenia in 1979. The Jam were fronted by Paul Weller who became known as 'The Modfather'. Other modernistic revival bands that emerged at this time were The Chords, Majestic Hearts, Secret Matter, The Merton Parkas and The Lambrettas.

Amphetamines [edit]

A notable part of the mod subculture was recreational amphetamine employ, which was used to fuel all-night dances at clubs. Newspaper reports described dancers emerging from clubs at five a.yard. with dilated pupils.^[3] Some mods consumed a combined amphetamine/barbiturate chosen Drinamyl, nicknamed "purple hearts".^[63] Due to this association with amphetamines, Pete Meaden'due south "make clean living" aphorism about the mod subculture may seem contradictory, just the drug was nonetheless legal in Britain in the early on 1960s, and mods used the drug for stimulation and alertness, which they viewed equally different from the intoxication caused by alcohol and other drugs.^[3] Andrew Wilson argued that for a significant minority, "amphetamines symbolised the smart, on-the-brawl, cool image" and that they sought "stimulation non intoxication ... greater awareness, non escape" and "conviction and articulacy" rather than the "drunken rowdiness of previous generations."^[3]

Wilson argued that the significance of amphetamines to the mod culture was like to that of LSD and cannabis inside the subsequent hippie counterculture. Dick Hebdige argued that mods used amphetamines to extend their leisure time into the early on hours of the morning and every bit a style of bridging the gap betwixt their hostile and daunting everyday piece of work lives and the "inner world" of dancing and dressing up in their off-hours.^[64]

Scooters [edit]

Many mods drove motor scooters, usually Vespas or Lambrettas.^[65] Scooters were a practical and affordable form of transportation for 1960s teens, since until the early 1970s, public transport stopped relatively early in the dark. For teens with depression-paying jobs, scooters were cheaper and easier to park than cars, and they could be bought through newly available hire purchase plans.

Vespa with feature collection of mirrors

Mods besides treated scooters as a fashion accessory. Italian scooters were preferred due to their make clean-lined, curving shapes and gleaming chrome, with sales driven by close associations betwixt dealerships and clubs, such as the Ace of Herts.^{[ citation needed ]}

For immature mods, Italian scooters were the "embodiment of continental style and a way to escape the working-course row houses of their upbringing".^[66] Mods customised their scooters past painting them in "ii-tone and candyflake and overaccessorized [them] with luggage racks, crash confined, and scores of mirrors and fog lights".^[66] Some mods added 4, ten, or as many as 30 mirrors to their scooters. They ofttimes put their names on the small windscreen. They sometimes took their engine side panels and forepart bumpers to electroplating shops to go them covered in highly cogitating chrome.

Hard mods (who later evolved into the skinheads) began riding scooters more for practical reasons. Their scooters were either unmodified or cutdown, which was nicknamed a "skelly".^[67] Lambrettas were cutdown to the bare frame, and the unibody (monocoque)-design Vespas had their trunk panels slimmed downwards or reshaped.

After the seaside resort brawls, the media began to associate Italian scooters with fierce mods. Much after, writers described groups of mods riding scooters together as a "menacing symbol of group solidarity" that was "converted into a weapon".^[68] ^[69] With events like the 6 November 1966, "scooter charge" on Buckingham Palace, the scooter, along with the mods' short pilus and suits, began to be seen as a symbol of subversion.^[seventy]

Gender roles [edit]

Stuart Hall and Tony Jefferson argued in 1993 that compared to other youth subcultures, the modern scene gave young women high visibility and relative autonomy.^[71] They wrote that this status may have been related both to the attitudes of the mod young men, who accepted the idea that a young woman did not take to exist attached to a man, and to the development of new occupations for young women, which gave them an income and made them more independent. Hall and Jefferson noted the increasing number of jobs in boutiques and women's clothing stores, which, while poorly paid and lacking opportunities for advocacy, gave immature women dispensable income, condition and a glamorous sense of dressing up and going into town to work.^[72]

Hall and Jefferson argued that the presentable paradigm of female modern fashions meant it was easier for young mod women to integrate with the non-subculture aspects of their lives (domicile, school and work) than for members of other subcultures.^[72] The emphasis on habiliment and a stylised look for women demonstrated the "aforementioned fussiness for detail in clothes" as their male mod counterparts.^[72]

Shari Benstock and Suzanne Ferriss claimed that the emphasis in the modern subculture on consumerism and shopping was the "ultimate affront to male working-class traditions" in the United Kingdom, considering in the working-class tradition, shopping was usually washed by women.^[51] They argued that British mods were "worshipping leisure and money ... scorning the masculine earth of hard work and honest labour" by spending their time listening to music, collecting records, socialising, and dancing at all-dark clubs.^[51]

Conflicts with rockers [edit]

In early-1960s Britain, the two master youth subcultures were mods and rockers. Mods were described in 2012 as "effeminate, stuck-up, emulating the middle classes, aspiring to a competitive sophistication, snobbish, [and] phony", and rockers as "hopelessly naive, loutish, [and] scruffy", emulating the motorcycle gang members in the film The Wild One, by wearing leather jackets and riding motorcycles.^[4] ^[73] Dick Hebdige claimed in 2006 that the "mods rejected the rocker'south crude conception of masculinity, the transparency of his motivations, his clumsiness"; the rockers viewed the vanity and obsession with dress of the mods every bit immasculine.^[14]

Scholars argue how much contact the two subcultures had during the 1960s. Hebdige argued that mods and rockers had piffling contact with each other considering they tended to come from dissimilar regions of England (mods from London and rockers from rural areas), and because they had "totally disparate goals and lifestyles".^[50] Mark Gilman, nevertheless, claimed that both mods and rockers could be seen at football matches.^[74]

John Covach wrote that in the United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland, rockers were often engaged in brawls with mods.^[4] BBC News stories from May 1964 stated that mods and rockers were jailed later on riots in seaside resort towns on the south and east coasts of England, such as Margate, Brighton, Bournemouth and Clacton.^[75] The "mods and rockers" conflict was explored as an instance of "moral panic" by sociologist Stanley Cohen in his study Folk Devils and Moral Panics,^[v] which examined media coverage of the mod and rocker riots in the 1960s.^{[half dozen]} Although Cohen acknowledged that mods and rockers had some fights in the mid-1960s, he argued that they were no different from the evening brawls that occurred between non-mod and non-rocker youths throughout the 1950s and early on 1960s, both at seaside resorts and after football game games.^[76]

Newspapers of the fourth dimension were eager to describe the mod and rocker clashes equally being of "disastrous proportions", and labelled mods and rockers as "sawdust Caesars", "vermin" and "louts".^[5] Newspaper editorials fanned the flames of hysteria, such equally a Birmingham Post editorial in May 1964 which warned that mods and rockers were "internal enemies" in the United Kingdom who would "bring about disintegration of a nation's grapheme". The magazine Law Review argued that the mods and rockers' purported lack of respect for police and order could cause violence to "surge and flame like a forest burn".^[five] As a result of this media coverage, two British Members of Parliament travelled to the seaside areas to survey the damage, and MP Harold Gurden called for a resolution for intensified measures to control youth hooliganism. One of the prosecutors in the trial of some of the Clacton brawlers argued that mods and rockers were youths with no serious views, who lacked respect for police and club.

References [edit]

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Grossman, Henry; Spencer, Terrance; Saton, Ernest (13 May 1966). "Revolution in Men's Wearing apparel: Modern Fashions from U.k. are Making a Smash in the U.S." Life. pp. 82–88.
^ Oonagh Jaquest (May 2003). "Jeff Apex on The Modernists". BBC. Archived from the original on 11 January 2009. Retrieved xi October 2008.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Dr. Andrew Wilson (2008). "Mixing the Medicine: The Unintended Consequence of Amphetamine Command on the Northern Soul Scene" (PDF). Cyberspace Journal of Criminology. Archived from the original (PDF) on thirteen July 2011. Retrieved 11 October 2008.
^ ^a ^b ^c Covach, John; Flory, Andrew (2012), "Chapter 4: 1964-1966 The Beatles and the british invasion | XII Other important British blues revival groups | E. The Who", in Covach, John; Flory, Andrew (eds.), What'due south that sound?: an introduction to rock and its history , New York: Norton, ISBN9780393912043, vi. The Rockers emulated Marlon Brando's motorcycle gang leader grapheme in "The Wild One" film (a) wore leather clothes; (b) rode motorcycles; and (c) oft engaged in brawls with the Mods Book preview. Archived 22 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Cohen, Stanley (2002). Folk devils and moral panics: the creation of the Mods and Rockers. Abingdon, England: Routledge. ISBN9780415267120.
^ ^a ^b British Motion picture Commission (BFC) (PDF), Film Education, archived from the original (PDF) on four July 2008
^ ^a ^b Page, Michael (2006). "A rather disjointed narrative of the California mod scene(south) 1980–1983". california-mod-scene.com. Archived from the original on 20 June 2009. Retrieved 11 Oct 2008.
^ ^a ^b Artavia, Mario (2006). "SoCal Mods". Due south Bay Scooter Club. Archived from the original on nine December 2008. Retrieved 11 Oct 2008.
^ Mods!, Richard Barnes. Eel Pie (1979), ISBN 0-85965-173-8; Absolute Beginners, Colin MacInnes
^ ^a ^b Jobling, Paul and David Crowley, Graphic Blueprint: Reproduction and Representation Since 1800 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1996) ISBN 0-7190-4467-7, ISBN 978-0-7190-4467-0, p. 213
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Rawlings, Terry, Modern: Clean Living Under Very Difficult Circumstances: a Very British Phenomenon (Omnibus Press, 2000) ISBN 0-7119-6813-vi
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External links [edit]

Revolution in Men' s Clothes: Mod Fashions from Great britain are Making a Smash in the U.S., Life Mag, 13 May. 1966, pg. 82-90 - Cover story nearly mod nail in America
OnThisDay 4 Apr 1964 BBC Panorama Reported on Mods and Rockers. Can't we all just get along
Mod Subculture at Curlie